Introduction
In organisations, discussions around personality typically emphasise "light-side" traits such as extraversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability. This emphasis is partly due to the methodologies used to construct the OCEAN personality framework, which highlights traits contributing to effective work performance [1]. However, it is essential to recognise that people can also commit harmful acts, often under the guise of good intentions. The emergence of research into the Dark Tetrad reflects a growing interest in understanding these darker facets of personality [2]. Consequently, Dark Triad research has focused on identifying individuals more likely to use manipulation, deceit, and exploitation to achieve their goals. This article is the first instalment in an in-depth exploration of the Dark Tetrad personality characteristics and their impact on leadership success. The Dark Tetrad includes Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy, and sadism. While these traits typically carry negative connotations, they play a more nuanced role in leadership. This first article examines Machiavellianism and sadism, highlighting how these traits manifest in the workplace.
Given their sensitivity, Dark Tetrad traits remain relatively unexplored in leadership studies despite their relevance in commercial enterprise. These traits are valued for their ability to manipulate, persuade, and strategise. Mythology offers examples of revered figures like Odysseus, Loki, Hercules, and Anansi, who are celebrated for their cunning and trickery. In these contexts, moral relativism — judging the appropriateness of behaviour based on context and intent — comes into play, emphasising the need for a nuanced understanding of the Dark Tetrad in leadership.
Steve Jobs, co-founder of Apple, exemplified a potent blend of Dark Tetrad traits in leadership. His approach combined visionary brilliance, intensity, and control, underpinned by a deep belief in his ability to transform the world. Jobs' Machiavellian tendencies were evident in his strategic manipulation, such as when he famously persuaded Pepsi's President John Sculley to join Apple by asking, "Do you want to sell sugar water for the rest of your life, or do you want to come with me and change the world?"
Further showcasing his Machiavellianism, Jobs' infamous "reality distortion field" allowed him to convince others of almost anything, regardless of the facts, driving teams to achieve the seemingly impossible but often fostering unrealistic expectations [3]. His narcissism was evident in his lack of empathy, frequently brutal feedback, and stark, binary approach to judging employees, categorising them as either "gods" or "shitheads [sic]" based on how well they served his immediate needs — creating a highly pressurised and volatile work environment.
As noted in previous articles, Jobs' leadership style mellowed as he matured, particularly during his second stint at Apple. However, the duality in Jobs' leadership — driven by visionary brilliance and darker personality traits — highlights the fine line between effective leadership and behaviours that can lead to significant disruption. While these traits undoubtedly propelled Apple to unprecedented success, they also created an environment of intense pressure and volatility, underscoring the complexities of leadership when such characteristics are at play.
Let us briefly consider the prevalence of psychopathy in leadership roles [4]. Research shows that while around 1% of the general population exhibits psychopathic tendencies, this figure rises sharply in corporate settings, with estimates ranging from 4% to 12% or more, particularly at senior levels. These statistics are striking, especially compared to the 15% rate in prison populations, suggesting that careers offering status, control, and substantial remuneration may attract individuals with these traits. In high-stakes corporate environments, traits like fearlessness, charm, and strategic ruthlessness are often mistaken for effective leadership, with the halo effect of a psychopath's charm frequently obscuring the negative impacts of their behaviour.
Dark Tetrad personality types are not mutually exclusive; an individual can be both narcissistic and psychopathic. Significant overlap exists among these traits, particularly in characteristics like low agreeableness, lack of empathy, and self-serving behaviour, which enable Dark Tetrad individuals to exploit others, often leading to harmful outcomes [5]. However, each personality type also has distinct differences — Sadists, for instance, derive pleasure from inflicting pain. Understanding these nuances is crucial, as they influence how each trait manifests in behaviour and the risks they pose to the team and organisational success.
This overlap can make identifying specific Dark Tetrad personality types challenging — is your boss, for example, a Machiavellian, a sadist, or both? This article delves deeply into the characteristics of Machiavellian and sadist, using archetypical examples from mythology — including figures like Clytemnestra, Eris, Loki, Ares, and Circe — to examine their implications for leadership. Psychopath and narcissist leadership archetypes will be covered in the next article in the series.
The Machiavellian Archetype
In mythology, the Machiavellian archetype is embodied by the Trickster, a figure explored in previous discussions, including characters like Hermes and Anansi the Spider. To illustrate the characteristics of a Trickster, let's delve into one of Loki's most famous exploits [6].
The Abduction of Idunn
During one of their journeys, Odin, Loki, and Höenir are crossing barren mountains far from Asgard [7]. Hungry and weary, they slaughter an ox, but despite their efforts, the meat won't cook [8]. As they ponder this puzzling situation, an enormous eagle perches on a nearby branch. Unbeknownst to the gods, the eagle is the giant Thjazi in disguise, using his magic to prevent the meat from cooking. He offers a deal: he will lift the spell if they share the meat with him. Though irritated, the gods, desperate to eat, agree. The eagle swoops down and takes the choicest portions.
Enraged by the eagle's greed, Loki strikes at it with a sturdy branch. To his astonishment, the eagle catches the branch in its talons and soars into the sky, carrying Loki with it. The terrified god clings on, begging for release. Thjazi, now revealing his true form as a giant, refuses to let Loki go until he swears an oath to bring him the goddess Idunn and her golden apples of immortality [9].
Upon returning to Asgard, Loki, bound by his oath, has no choice but to fulfil his promise. With characteristic cunning, he approaches Idunn, claiming to have found apples even more marvellous than hers in a forest beyond Asgard's walls. Persuading her to bring her apples for comparison, he leads her to the grove, where Thjazi swiftly seizes her and carries her off to his distant mountain stronghold, Thrymheim, in Jötunheim [10].
In Idunn's absence, the gods age rapidly, their vigour fading as their youth slips away [11]. Realising Loki was the last to be seen with Idunn, the gods confront him, threatening severe punishment if he doesn't retrieve her. Cornered and under immense pressure, Loki borrows Freyja's raptor feathers and transforms into a hawk.
Loki flies to Thrymheim, where he finds Idunn alone, as Thjazi has gone to sea. Acting swiftly, Loki transforms Idunn into a small nut and carries her back to Asgard in his talons. Discovering Idunn's disappearance, Thjazi pursues Loki in the form of a giant eagle.
As Loki nears Asgard, the gods prepare a trap. They build a massive fire at the gates, and just as Loki crosses the threshold, the gods ignite the flames. Thjazi, flying too fast to stop, is consumed by the fire, ending his pursuit. With Idunn safe, the gods are restored to their youthful vigour by her apples, and Loki narrowly escapes the consequences of his earlier actions.
Machiavellian Characteristics in Leadership
Like other Machiavellian figures, Loki embodies cunning, strategic prowess, and pragmatism traits. Machiavellian leaders excel in navigating complex social dynamics, using deceit and manipulation to achieve their goals. Their actions are typically driven by self-interest, focusing on long-term planning and attaining objectives, often at the expense of ethical considerations.
Loki's behaviour in the myth of Idunn's abduction highlights several key Machiavellian traits. His cunning is evident in how he manipulates Idunn into leaving Asgard's safety under the pretence of finding better apples. This reflects the essence of Machiavellianism: the ability to deceive and manipulate others to serve one's interests. Similarly, Loki's willingness to make a deal with Thjazi, even at the risk of the gods' well-being, demonstrates the Machiavellian focus on personal gain over communal responsibility.
Another hallmark of Machiavellians is their adaptability and resourcefulness in problem-solving. When threatened with punishment by the gods, Loki quickly devises a plan to rescue Idunn, borrowing Freyja's feathers and transforming into a hawk. This quick thinking and ability to turn a dire situation to his advantage are emblematic of a Machiavellian leader.
Moreover, Loki's actions underscore the Machiavellian tendency to operate in morally ambiguous spaces. He fulfils his promise to Thjazi, not out of loyalty but to save himself from the giant's wrath. Later, he rescues Idunn and restores the gods' youth, but this act is driven by self-preservation rather than genuine concern for others. This pragmatic approach, where the ends justify the means, is one defining feature of Machiavellianism. Loki's moral flexibility allows him to navigate situations where conventional ethics are sidelined in favour of achieving his goals, regardless of the collateral damage to others.
In addition to his strategic cunning, Loki's enjoyment of manipulating others through language is vividly showcased in the myth "Lokasenna", one of the events precipitating Ragnarök [12]. During a feast, a marginalised Loki insults each of the gods, exposing their moral failings, weaknesses, and hypocrisies with his sharp wit. His pleasure in using verbal fluency to provoke and humiliate others further illustrates his Machiavellian nature. This episode highlights his ability to weaponise words, demonstrating his cunning and delight in causing harm to satisfy his ego.
From Gods to People
Loki and the Trickster archetype’s inclination toward causing chaos and their focus on immediate solutions lack the emotional depth and long-term strategic planning that are hallmark traits of Machiavellian leaders. These deeper, more calculated characteristics are vividly depicted in many myths involving human figures. Let's turn to the tragedy of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon to illustrate these traits better.
Agamemnon, the king of Mycenae, is a pivotal figure during the Trojan War, leading the Greek forces against Troy. However, before he can set sail, Agamemnon is confronted with a grave situation: the goddess Artemis has stilled the winds, preventing the Greek fleet from departing [13]. The only way to appease Artemis is for Agamemnon to sacrifice his daughter, Iphigenia — sealing his fate [14]. After ten long years, the war finally ends, and Agamemnon returns home to Mycenae, expecting a hero's welcome.
Clytemnestra, Agamemnon's wife, has never forgiven him for sacrificing their daughter. Over the years, her grief and bitterness deepen into an overwhelming desire for revenge. During Agamemnon's absence, Clytemnestra takes a lover, Aegisthus [15] and together, they plot to kill Agamemnon upon his return.
When Agamemnon arrives home, Clytemnestra greets him with apparent warmth, convincing him to walk along a red carpet to the palace [16]. Oblivious to the danger, Agamemnon enters the palace, where he is murdered in cold blood by Clytemnestra, with Aegisthus' help. In some versions of the myth, she kills him while he is bathing, either by stabbing him or ensnaring him in a net before striking him down. This brutal murder is both Clytemnestra's revenge for Iphigenia's death and a calculated move to secure power over Mycenae.
Clytemnestra and Aegisthus rule Mycenae together, but the looming threat of vengeance overshadows their reign. Years later, Orestes, Agamemnon's son, urged by the god Apollo and his sister Electra, returns to Mycenae. Determined to avenge his father's death, Orestes kills Aegisthus and then confronts his mother. Despite Clytemnestra's pleas for mercy, Orestes, driven by duty and the divine command to restore justice, kills her, completing the cycle of vengeance [17].
The story of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon exemplifies the tragic consequences of betrayal, revenge, and the relentless cycles of violence that permeate many Greek myths. Clytemnestra embodies Machiavellianism through her intensely self-serving commitment to her goal: a fierce desire to avenge her daughter's death and a calculated, ruthless strategy to seize power. Her manipulation and trickery — convincing an unsuspecting Agamemnon to walk to his doom — demonstrate her willingness to achieve her ends at any cost, showcasing her mastery of deception and strategic cunning.
Machiavellian Archetype Summary
The Machiavellian archetype in modern leadership is defined by five key traits that enable leaders to navigate complex environments and achieve their objectives, often at the expense of ethical considerations:
1. Moral Ambiguity and Ends-Justify-the-Means Mentality: Machiavellian leaders operate in morally grey areas, where conventional ethics are often sidelined. They believe the end justifies the means, using any necessary methods to achieve their goals. This approach risks a dangerous slide into deep moral relativism, where principles are compromised, leading to ethical breaches that can damage both the leader's and the organisation's reputation.
2. Cunning and Strategic Manipulation: These leaders are masters of influence, using deception and strategic manoeuvring to manipulate social dynamics and advance their interests. They skilfully position others as pawns in their broader schemes to ensure their objectives are met.
3. Focus on Self-Interest and Personal Gain: Prioritising personal advancement, power, and control, Machiavellian leaders make decisions that serve their goals, often disregarding collective well-being or ethical standards. A relentless pursuit of personal success drives their actions.
4. Adaptability and Resourcefulness: These leaders quickly adjust strategies in response to changing circumstances. Their resourcefulness enables them to turn challenges into opportunities, often outmanoeuvring competitors or adversaries with quick thinking and flexibility.
5. Verbal Manipulation and Deceit: Machiavellian leaders are skilled in persuasion and adroitly use language to control narratives, manipulate perceptions, and influence decisions. They often mask their true intentions behind charm or rhetoric, making it difficult for others to discern their real motives.
Machiavellianism in leadership is characterised by strategic manipulation, pragmatism, and a focus on self-interest. While these traits can drive significant accomplishments, they also carry substantial risks, particularly when moral relativism leads to a disregard for ethical boundaries. Understanding these traits, as illustrated by figures like Loki and Clytemnestra, provides valuable insights into the complexities and potential pitfalls of Machiavellian leadership in modern contexts.
Henry Kissinger: The Archetypal Machiavellian Leader
Henry Kissinger was a towering figure in global diplomacy. Born in Germany in 1923, he fled to the U.S. to escape Nazi persecution and rose to prominence as a key advisor to Presidents Nixon and Ford. Kissinger played a pivotal role in major diplomatic achievements like opening U.S.-China relations and negotiating the Vietnam ceasefire.
A pen picture of his personality and approach to diplomacy indicates strong Machiavellian tendencies:
1. Moral Ambiguity and Ends-Justify-the-Means Mentality: Kissinger prioritised U.S. strategic interests over conventional ethics. His involvement in controversial actions, such as the secret bombing of Cambodia during the Vietnam War, exemplifies his belief that achieving broader geopolitical goals justified morally questionable decisions.
2. Cunning and Strategic Manipulation: Kissinger mastered back-channel diplomacy and strategic manipulation. His role in opening relations with China and managing the Cold War balance of power showcases his ability to manoeuvre through complex political landscapes, often outsmarting allies and adversaries.
3. Focus on Self-Interest and Personal Gain: Kissinger focused on consolidating power and influence throughout his career. He effectively positioned himself as a central figure in U.S. foreign policy, ensuring continued relevance across multiple administrations and global crises.
4. Adaptability and Resourcefulness: Kissinger's success in foreign policy was partly due to his adaptability in changing global dynamics. Whether navigating the shifting alliances of the Cold War or responding to crises in the Middle East, his resourcefulness effectively supported U.S. dominance and influence.
5. Verbal Manipulation and Deceit: Kissinger's intellectual prowess and command of language allowed him to shape narratives and influence public perception. He often used rhetoric to downplay the ethical implications of his actions, securing support for his policies while obscuring their more controversial aspects.
Kissinger's legacy as a highly effective yet controversial leader in international diplomacy highlights the potential and peril of Machiavellian traits. His success underscores why such characteristics are admired. Still, it reveals the perilous line Machiavellian leaders tread — between acceptable moral ambiguity and outright depravity, between skilful negotiation and fostering new enemies. The disastrous outcomes of Machiavellian leaders like Jeff Skilling (Enron) and Elizabeth Holmes (Theranos) illustrate that when this balance tips, catastrophe follows.
For contemporary leaders, it is clear that adopting a Machiavellian leadership style, motivated by personal gain, is disastrous. It is ethically and morally dubious, requiring lying, deception and reality distortion. Professional networks are tight-knit, and reputations are crucial; being renowned for Machiavellianism damages one's brand and undermines working relationships — leading to isolation, mistrust and sabotaging long-term success.
The Sadist Archetype
With an understanding of Machiavellianism established, let us now explore a more malevolent aspect of the Dark Tetrad: Sadism. When considering leadership in business, sadism isn't typically at the forefront of our minds. However, given its motivation to cause physical and psychological harm, it warrants careful consideration due to its potential to create highly toxic environments and significant mental health problems within organisations.
To delve deeper into the sadistic archetype, we can start by examining two infamous figures from Greek mythology: Ares, the god of war, and his sister Eris, the goddess of discord. Both deities symbolise the darker, chaotic aspects of human nature, aligning closely with the traits of sadism.
The Trojan War
Ares and Eris, siblings in Greek mythology, embody the dual aspects of sadism. Ares, the god of war, represents battle's brutal and violent aspects, characterised by his impulsive and aggressive nature [18]. Eris, the goddess of discord and strife, spreads chaos and conflict wherever she goes, thriving on the psychological turmoil she creates, making her the personification of conflict in its most insidious form [19].
The Scene is Set
Eris was not invited to the wedding of Peleus and Thetis because the gods feared her reputation for causing strife [20]. Offended by her exclusion, Eris sought to disrupt the celebrations. She created a golden apple inscribed with "To the fairest" and threw it among the goddesses at the wedding, knowing it would spark conflict.
As anticipated, the apple led to a fierce dispute between Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite, each claiming the title of "the fairest." The three goddesses appealed to Zeus to arbitrate, but unwilling to choose himself, Zeus delegated the decision to Paris, a Trojan prince known for his sound judgment.
Each goddess tried to bribe Paris: Hera offered him power and kingship, Athena promised him wisdom and success in war, and Aphrodite tempted him with the love of the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Sparta. Paris awarded the golden apple to Aphrodite.
However, Helen was already married to King Menelaus of Sparta. When Paris abducted Helen, it triggered a chain of events that led to the Trojan War [21]. Furious at the betrayal, Menelaus called upon the other Greek kings and help him retrieve Helen. This coalition of Greek forces sailed to Troy, leading to a decade-long war.
Enter Ares
As the Trojan War rages, Ares eagerly joins the conflict, siding with the Trojans due to his affair with Aphrodite. Ares thrives on chaos and bloodshed, finding joy in the suffering inflicted on the battlefield. He fights fiercely alongside the Trojan warriors, causing immense carnage. However, his sadistic delight is interrupted when he faces Diomedes, who, with Athena's guidance, wounds Ares [22]. This injury forces Ares to retreat to Olympus.
Despite his retreat, Ares' presence leaves an indelible mark on the war, amplifying its brutality through his unrestrained aggression and joy in the horrors of battle.
Sadist Characteristics in Leadership
Sadistic leaders, like Eris and Ares from Greek mythology, embody traits of cruelty, manipulation, and a desire to incite suffering, both psychological and physical. Their actions create immediate chaos and distress, but the long-term consequences are far more damaging.
Eris represents the psychological side of sadism in leadership. Her act of throwing the golden apple into the gathering of goddesses underscores a sadistic leader's desire to provoke conflict for personal amusement without concern for long-term implications. Such leaders thrive on chaos, manipulating situations to generate strife and relishing the resulting turmoil. Driven by retribution, Eris's actions highlight how sadistic leaders might create conflict not just for power but out of a deep-seated desire for revenge. This vengeful motivation intensifies their malevolence, making their actions even more harmful.
However, the long-term impact of such behaviour is profound. Sustained sadistic leadership leads to lasting damage, such as decreased morale, high turnover, and the erosion of organisational trust. The toxic environment such leaders create fosters a culture where fear and suspicion reign, significantly undermining team cohesion and productivity.
Ares epitomises the physical aspect of sadism in leadership. His joy in the violence and suffering of battle during the Trojan War mirrors the behaviour of leaders who enjoy seeing others in distress. These leaders create environments where bullying, aggression, and fear are pervasive, fostering a toxic workplace culture where brutality is normalised and emotional harm is inflicted without remorse. Despite Ares' role as the god of war, Zeus and Athena view his actions with disdain, highlighting that even among the gods, his brutality is abhorrent. Ares is consequently isolated and shunned by the other gods, who see his unrestrained aggression as repugnant.
Both Ares and Eris lack empathy and show detached cruelty. Ares relishes the widespread suffering on the battlefield, while Eris delights in the psychological torment she causes. Sadistic leaders similarly exhibit a cold detachment from the impact of their actions on others, leading to environments characterised by insensitivity and a lack of compassion. The emotional needs of employees are ignored and actively undermined, eroding trust, damaging team cohesion, and ultimately compromising productivity. The long-term damage to organisational culture, including the loss of trust and the breakdown of effective teamwork, can have lasting repercussions, making it difficult to recover from the harm inflicted by such leadership.
The Transformation of Scylla
Ares’ and Eris' sadistic acts are blunt and direct. A sadist's work is, though often subtle, hard to recognise, yet equally devastating in its impact. One myth that symbolises this is the sorceress Cerci’s transformation of Scylla [23].
Glaucus, a mortal fisherman, ate a magical herb and transformed into a sea god. With his newfound divinity, he wanders the seas until he encounters Scylla, a beautiful sea nymph. Enamoured by her beauty, Glaucus declares his love. However, Scylla is repulsed by his fish-like appearance and flees from him in terror.
Desperate to win Scylla's love, Glaucus sought the help of Circe, a powerful sorceress. Glaucus pleads with Circe to create a potion to make Scylla fall in love with him. However, Circe herself falls in love with Glaucus, and when he expresses his unwavering devotion to Scylla, Circe's love turns to jealousy and anger.
A now bitter Circe concocts a potion and pours it into the sea, where Scylla bathes. When Scylla enters the water, she is horrifically transformed. Her lower body morphs into a grotesque mass of writhing tentacles. Six long, snakelike necks emerge from her torso, each bearing a fearsome head with three rows of razor-sharp teeth.
Scylla, devastated by her transformation, retreats to a secluded part of the sea, where she attacks and devours passing sailors [24]. Glaucus is heartbroken, spending his days wandering the oceans, lamenting his lost love.
The myth of Scylla's transformation by Circe is a poignant example of subtle sadism. Driven by bitterness and malevolence, Circe doesn't attack Scylla directly but poisons the sea where she bathes, transforming her into a grotesque monster. This act ruins Scylla's life and emotionally devastates Glaucus, who wanders the oceans in despair. Circe's calculated cruelty lies in creating a toxic environment that irreparably damages her victims. This myth underscores how one can insidiously engineer environments to cause long-term harm to all involved, including the perpetrator [25].
Sadist Archetype Summary
The sadistic archetype in leadership is defined by five key traits that contribute to toxic environments and cause harm to colleagues and the organisation.
1. Delight in Physical and Emotional Suffering: Leaders who embody the sadistic archetype find joy in others' pain. They create environments where aggression, bullying, and fear are pervasive, fostering a culture where brutality is normalised. This leads to a psychologically destructive workplace, where employees feel constantly destabilised.
2. Psychological Manipulation and Provocation: Sadistic leaders delight in creating chaos and conflict. They manipulate situations to provoke strife and distress, deriving pleasure from the suffering they inflict. Their actions are driven by a deep-seated need to derive satisfaction in others' misery, which can be intensified by a desire for revenge, making their behaviour more malevolent.
3. Lack of Empathy and Detached Cruelty: Sadistic leaders display a cold detachment from the impact of their actions on others. They lack empathy, showing insensitivity toward colleagues' emotional and psychological well-being. This detachment results in an environment where compassion is absent, and the emotional needs of employees are disregarded.
4. Subtle and Indirect Harm: Many sadistic leaders employ subtle methods to inflict harm. Rather than confrontation, they create toxic environments that slowly destabilise — eroding trust and morale. This insidious approach creates isolated victims — often going unnoticed until the damage is deeply ingrained, making recovery difficult.
5. Long-Term Damage and Self-Destruction: The actions of sadistic leaders lead to significant long-term consequences, including erosion of trust, decreased morale, and high turnover. Furthermore, sadists' toxic behaviour often leads to their isolation and downfall, as the harmful environments they create ultimately consume them as well.
The sadistic archetype is distinct from the other types in the Dark Tetrad by its primary motivation: the desire to cause pain and suffering. While other Dark Tetrad traits may seek power, control, or validation, the sadist finds satisfaction in the suffering of others, making them particularly dangerous in leadership roles.
Leona Helmsley: The Archetypical Sadistic Leader
Leona Helmsley, famously dubbed the "Queen of Mean," is an archetype of sadistic leadership [26]. Known for her tyrannical behaviour as a hotel operator and real estate investor, Helmsley exhibited the traits of the sadistic archetype.
1. Delight in Physical and Emotional Suffering: Helmsley found pleasure in the suffering of her employees, creating a hostile work environment where fear and bullying were commonplace. Her harsh and abusive management style reflected a deep-seated enjoyment in the anxiety and discomfort of those who worked for her.
2. Psychological Manipulation and Provocation: Helmsley was notorious for provoking and manipulating those around her. She often created conflicts among her staff, watching with satisfaction as they struggled to meet her impossible demands. She was vengeful, and her actions were driven by the personal satisfaction she derived from others' misery.
3. Lack of Empathy and Detached Cruelty: Helmsley was renowned for her lack of empathy. She was infamously quoted as saying, "Only the little people pay taxes," reflecting her disregard for the struggles of the majority. Her cold detachment and insensitivity towards others' well-being created a working culture devoid of compassion.
4. Subtle and Indirect Harm: Helmsley often employed subtle methods to instil fear. This included making sudden, arbitrary decisions destabilising her employees and eroding trust and morale.
5. Long-Term Damage and Self-Destruction: The long-term effects of Helmsley's sadistic leadership led to her downfall. She was convicted of tax evasion in 1989; the toxic environment she created alienated those around her, and her reputation was irreparably damaged. Indeed, she remains a symbol of excess and cruelty.
Leona Helmsley's legacy as a sadistic leader underscores the dangers of such behaviour in leadership. Helmsley's actions were motivated primarily by a desire to cause pain and suffering. This malevolent focus not only damaged the lives of many of those who worked for her but also highlighted the inherent implications of sadistic leadership.
Sadist vs. Machiavellian Leadership
While sadistic and Machiavellian leaders are low in honesty and agreeableness, and characterised by manipulation, moral corruption and a lack of empathy, their core motivations diverge significantly. Machiavellian leaders are typically strategic, using manipulation and deceit to achieve their goals, have a cynical view of human nature and are driven by self-interest. They thrive in morally ambiguous situations, using moral relativism to justify unethical actions as necessary for success.
Sadistic leaders, on the other hand, are driven by a desire to inflict pain and suffering. Their actions stem from a deep-seated need to cause harm. They are motivated by and derive pleasure from the chaos and distress they create at the expense of individual well-being.
Summary
Machiavellian and sadistic leaders undermine both individual well-being and organisational success. By fostering environments where manipulation, fear, and moral decay are the norm, they increase turnover, diminish productivity, and exacerbate employee mental health challenges. Machiavellians use people as tools for personal gain through morally questionable tactics, while sadists take pleasure in causing chaos and suffering. They erode trust, fracture team cohesion, and jeopardise an organisation's long-term stability.
From a moral standpoint, sadism, driven by the intent to harm, is unequivocally unethical. I've emphasised the importance of truthfulness in leadership, which also positions Machiavellianism as inherently unethical. While the allure of Machiavellian tactics can be strong, relying on moral relativism, manipulation, and deceit is perilous. Though such strategies may yield short-term success, only the most arrogant believe they can sustain a career indefinitely. Dark Tetrad characteristics set the stage for eventual career and organisational decline.
Leaders can exhibit varying degrees of sadism and Machiavellianism, making it crucial for everyone to reflect on their behaviour and motivations. Are you resorting to manipulation, compromising honesty, or lacking empathy? If so, you are contributing to a toxic work environment. You can help foster a healthier workplace by recognising and addressing these tendencies.
Alternatively, are you stuck in a toxic, malevolent culture? Are colleagues scapegoated, are you victimised, or are you subjected to unwarranted pressure by a boss lacking empathy? If so, it may be time to consider seeking a healthier, more supportive work environment where you can thrive.
References
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Norse Mythology, Neil Gaiman, 2017
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Subclinical sadism and the Dark Triad: Should there be a Dark Tetrad? Journal of Individual Differences, 40, 127-133, Johnson, Plouffe, and Saklofske, 2019
The Dark Triad of Personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and Psychopathy in Everyday Life, Lyons, 2019
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The Greek Myths, Graves,1988
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The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting two very different profiles of human nature. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 467, Kaufman, Yaden, Hyde, and Tsukayama, 2019
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Footnote
[1] The OCEAN framework, also known as the Big Five, describes five key dimensions of personality: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. Recently, the model has been extended into the HEXACO model, adding a sixth dimension, Honesty-Humility, to address traits like sincerity and fairness.
[2] Two frameworks describe maladaptive personality traits — the Dark Tetrad and Cluster B personality disorders (antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders). Cluster B is used in a clinical diagnostic context. In contrast, the Dark Tetrad is more about understanding these traits in a broader, non-clinical population — hence their use in this article.
[3] The reality distortion field concept originated from a "Star Trek" episode in which aliens created their reality through sheer willpower. Colleagues at Apple coined the term to describe Jobs' ability to convince himself and others to believe almost anything.
[4] Dark Tetrad research, particularly at senior levels in organisations, is sensitive. The main body of the literature focuses on psychopathy, with less robust information available for sadism, narcissism and Machiavellianism.
[5] Agreeableness is used throughout the article as one of the Big Five personality traits. Leaders scoring low on agreeableness are generally more competitive, critical, and less concerned with others' needs and feelings. They are more focused on their interests, less likely to compromise, and may come across as blunt or argumentative.
[6] A previous article, "A Wolf's Wisdom", described the story of the binding of Fenrir. Loki devised the plan to trick the wolf.
[7] Odin, Loki, and Höenir are Aesir gods in Norse mythology: Odin is the wise Allfather, Loki the cunning trickster, and Höenir their companion. Höenir is sometimes called "The Muddy" or "The Swift God" and is renowned for his indecisiveness and silence, relying on others to make decisions.
[8] The uncookable meat symbolises supernatural forces disrupting the natural order, highlighting how power and control can be undermined by external, often chaotic, forces — forcing us into a position of vulnerability.
[9] Idunn is the Norse Goddess of Youth.
[10] Jötunheim is one of the Nine Realms in Norse Mythology and is the homeland of the jötnar, or giants. Jötunheim and the giants represent chaos, the untamed forces of nature, and the constant threat to the cosmic order maintained by the gods.
[11] The Aesir needed to eat the Idunn's golden apples regularly to stay vigorous and young, hence their ageing.
[12] Loki's role and the events leading to Ragnarök are detailed in the article "Loki's Shadow".
[13] Agamemnon angered the goddess Artemis by killing a sacred deer in her grove and boasting that he was a better hunter than her.
[14] Agamemnon is caught between kingly duty and family commitment and shows Machiavellian tendencies in sacrificing his daughter — ends justify the means.
[15] Aegisthus had reasons to despise Agamemnon — Aegisthus was the son of Thyestes, whom Agamemnon's father had wronged.
[16] Red carpets were reserved for the gods, symbolising Agamemnon's hubris. Indeed, it is Agamemnon’s pride, boasting of his hunting skills, that leads to his eventual downfall.
[17] This act of matricide plunged Orestes into torment, as he was pursued by the Furies, who punished those who spilt familial blood. The Furies symbolise the inescapable consequences of guilt, relentless pursuit of justice, and upholding moral and natural law.
[18] Unlike Athena, who represents strategic warfare, Ares delights in the chaos, bloodshed, and destruction that war brings.
[19] Ares and Eris complement each other perfectly. Together, they symbolise how war and discord feed off each other, creating a cycle of destruction that harms both individuals and societies. Their union highlights the inseparable nature of physical violence and the psychological turmoil that accompanies it.
[20] Peleus was a mortal king of the Myrmidons, a warrior people from Thessaly, and Thetis was a sea nymph, one of the Nereids, and a goddess of the sea. Their union was significant because it brought together the mortal and divine realms. Their son Achilles was renowned for his unmatched battle prowess and central role in the Trojan War.
[21] In alternate versions of the myth, Helen elopes with Paris.
[22] Diomedes is one of the foremost Greek heroes in the Trojan War, favoured by Athena and known for his bravery, intelligence, and martial prowess. He is the son of Tydeus, one of the legendary "Seven Against Thebes", and is renowned for wounding Aphrodite and Ares in the Trojan War.
[23] The enchantress Circe was introduced in an earlier article — "Harnessing Hydras". She is a sadistic figure; one of her most infamous displays of sadism occurs in Homer's "Odyssey", where she transforms Odysseus' men into pigs. This act is a display of her power as well as her delight in exerting control and causing distress. Circe takes pleasure in the helplessness of Odysseus's men, stripping them of their human form and forcing them into a vulnerable, more chaotic state.
[24] Odysseus and his crew encounter the monster Scylla in the Odyssey — she devours six of the crew. Scylla patrols the seas opposite Charybdis, a monster who creates deadly whirlpools. In Greek mythology, Scylla and Charybdis are positioned on either side of the Strait of Messina between Italy and Sicily. Together, they represent a deadly challenge, symbolising the need for leaders to have the courage to choose between the lesser of two evils.
[25] Circe's actions, driven by her bitterness, can be seen as unconsciously steering herself toward her own destruction. Like leaders such as Hitler, her obsession with revenge and control sets the stage for events that not only devastate others but also precipitate her eventual downfall.
[26] It is difficult to tell if Leona Helmsley was just sadistic or a sadistic psychopath from the written accounts. However, her strongest motivation seems to be her desire to humiliate and cause suffering to others; hence, she is an exemplar of sadism.